What is cyanobacterial bloom

Advances in understanding the cyanobacterial CO 2 -concentrating-mechanism CCM : functional components, C i transporters, diversity, genetic regulation and prospects for engineering into plants. This study provides an excellent review of the CCMs of cyanobacteria by pioneers in this field. Burnap, R.

Regulation of CO 2 concentrating mechanism in cyanobacteria. Life 5 , — Sandrini, G. Genetic diversity of inorganic carbon uptake systems causes variation in CO 2 response of the cyanobacterium Microcystis.

Rapid adaptation of harmful cyanobacteria to rising CO 2. This study demonstrates with selection experiments and field data that increasing CO 2 concentrations induce rapid adaptive changes in the CCM of cyanobacterial blooms.

Gas vesicles. This classic review is a must-read for everyone interested in the gas vesicles of buoyant cyanobacteria. Pfeifer, F. Distribution, formation and regulation of gas vesicles. Sommaruga, R. Multiple strategies of bloom-forming Microcystis to minimize damage by solar ultraviolet radiation in surface waters. The selective advantage of buoyancy provided by gas vesicles for planktonic cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea.

Changes in turbulent mixing shift competition for light between phytoplankton species. Ecology 85 , — Reynolds, C. Cyanobacterial dominance: the role of buoyancy regulation in dynamic lake environments.

Freshwater Res. Modelling vertical migration of the cyanobacterium Microcystis. Hydrobiologia , 99— Kromkamp, J. Buoyant density changes in the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa due to changes in the cellular carbohydrate content. Diurnal changes in buoyancy and vertical distribution in populations of Microcystis in two shallow lakes. Plankton Res. Villareal, T. Buoyancy regulation and the potential for vertical migration in the oceanic cyanobacterium Trichodesmium.

The Burgundy-blood phenomenon: a model of buoyancy change explains autumnal waterblooms of Planktothrix rubescens in Lake Zurich. Meriluoto, J. Handbook of Cyanobacterial Monitoring and Cyanotoxin Analysis. This recent handbook includes reviews on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins, with standard operating procedures for their monitoring and analysis.

Google Scholar. Hairston, Jr. Natural selection for grazer resistance to toxic cyanobacteria: evolution of phenotypic plasticity? Evolution 55 , — This study hatches eggs of the water flea Daphnia from 35 years of sediment, demonstrating that Daphnia developed resistance to toxic cyanobacteria after they became dominant in Lake Constance.

Lemaire, V. This interesting study illustrates the co-evolutionary arms race between toxic cyanobacteria and their grazers. Jiang, X. Rapid evolution of tolerance to toxic Microcystis in two cladoceran grazers. Rantala, A. Phylogenetic evidence for the early evolution of microcystin synthesis. Zilliges, Y. The cyanobacterial hepatotoxin microcystin binds to proteins and increases the fitness of Microcystis under oxidative stress conditions.

Kardinaal, W. Microcystis genotype succession in relation to microcystin concentrations in freshwater lakes. Sabart, M. Spatiotemporal variations in microcystin concentrations and in the proportions of microcystin-producing cells in several Microcystis aeruginosa populations. Mantzouki, E. Temperature effects explain continental scale distribution of cyanobacterial toxins. Toxins 10 , This recent study presents the first large inventory of the geographical distribution of cyanotoxins on a continental scale.

Rapala, J. Variation of microcystins, cyanobacterial hepatotoxins, in Anabaena spp. Wiedner, C. Effects of light on the microcystin content of Microcystis strain PCC Van de Waal, D.

The ecological stoichiometry of toxins produced by harmful cyanobacteria an experimental test of the carbon—nutrient balance hypothesis. Kurmayer, R. Abundance of active and inactive microcystin genotypes in populations of the toxic cyanobacterium Planktothrix spp. MacKintosh, C. Cyanobacterial microcystin-LR is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A from both mammals and higher plants.

FEBS Lett. Yoshizawa, S. Inhibition of protein phosphatases by microcystins and nodularin associated with hepatotoxicity. Cancer Res. Falconer, I. Evidence of liver damage by toxin from a bloom of the blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa. Jochimsen, E. Liver failure and death after exposure to microcystins at a hemodialysis center in Brazil.

This study tells the sad story of more than 50 patients who died from acute liver failure after haemodialysis using water contaminated with cyanotoxins. Chen, L. A review of reproductive toxicity of microcystins. Miller, M. Evidence for a novel marine harmful algal bloom: cyanotoxin microcystin transfer from land to sea otters. PLOS One 5 , e Meissner, S. Microcystin production revisited: conjugate formation makes a major contribution. Miles, C. Conjugation of microcystins with thiols is reversible: base-catalyzed deconjugation for chemical analysis.

Pearson, L. On the chemistry, toxicology and genetics of the cyanobacterial toxins, microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermopsin. Drugs 8 , — Hawkins, P. Severe hepatotoxicity caused by the tropical cyanobacterium blue-green alga Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii Woloszynska Seenaya and Subba Raju isolated from a domestic water supply reservoir. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii Woloszynska Seenaya et Subba Raju, an expanding, highly adaptive cyanobacterium: worldwide distribution and review of its ecology.

Antunes, J. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii : review of the distribution, phylogeography, and ecophysiology of a global invasive species. Wiese, M. Neurotoxic alkaloids: saxitoxin and its analogs. Lobner, D.

Beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine enhances neurotoxicity through multiple mechanisms. Cox, P. Biomagnification of cyanobacterial neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disease among the Chamorro people of Guam. Bradley, W. Is exposure to cyanobacteria an environmental risk factor for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurodegenerative diseases?

Lateral Scler. Frontotemporal Degener. Durai, P. Structure and effects of cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides. Drugs 13 , — Neilan, B. Environmental conditions that influence toxin biosynthesis in cyanobacteria. Transfer of N 2 and CO 2 fixation products from Anabaena oscillarioides to associated bacteria during inorganic carbon sufficiency and deficiency.

Competition and facilitation between the marine nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Cyanothece and its associated bacterial community. Ploug, H.

Carbon, nitrogen and O 2 fluxes associated with the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea. Hmelo, L. Characterization of bacterial epibionts on the cyanobacterium Trichodesmium. Alvarenga, D. A metagenomic approach to cyanobacterial genomics. Louati, I. Structural diversity of bacterial communities associated with bloom-forming freshwater cyanobacteria differs according to the cyanobacterial genus.

PLOS One 10 , e Berg, C. Dissection of microbial community functions during a cyanobacterial bloom in the Baltic Sea via metatranscriptomics. Van Hannen, E. Changes in bacterial and eukaryotic community structure after mass lysis of filamentous cyanobacteria associated with viruses. Shao, K. The responses of the taxa composition of particle-attached bacterial community to the decomposition of Microcystis blooms.

Total Environ. Gerphagnon, M. Microbial players involved in the decline of filamentous and colonial cyanobacterial blooms with a focus on fungal parasitism. Van Wichelen, J.

The common bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis is prone to a wide array of microbial antagonists. Harmful Algae 55 , 97— Yoshida, M. Ecological dynamics of the toxic bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa and its cyanophages in freshwater. Coloma, S. Newly isolated Nodularia phage influences cyanobacterial community dynamics. Kagami, M. Parasitic chytrids: their effects on phytoplankton communities and food-web dynamics.

Hydrobiologia , — Makarova, K. Defense islands in bacterial and archaeal genomes and prediction of novel defense systems. Kuno, S. Diversification of CRISPR within coexisting genotypes in a natural population of the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa.

Microbiology , — Rohrlack, T. Putative antiparasite defensive system involving ribosomal and nonribosomal oligopeptides in cyanobacteria of the genus Planktothrix. Kimura, S. Rapid gene diversification of Microcystis cyanophages revealed by long-and short-term genetic analysis of the tail sheath gene in a natural pond.

DeMott, W. Daphnia food limitation in three hypereutrophic Dutch lakes: evidence for exclusion of large-bodied species by interfering filaments of cyanobacteria. Gliwicz, Z. Food thresholds in Daphnia species in the absence and presence of blue-green filaments. Ecology 71 , — A highly unsaturated fatty acid predicts carbon transfer between primary producers and consumers.

Nature , 74—77 Martin-Creuzburg, D. Nutritional constraints at the cyanobacteria- Daphnia magna interface: the role of sterols. Role of microcystins in poisoning and food ingestion inhibition of Daphnia galeata caused by the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Sadler, T. Physiological interaction of Daphnia and Microcystis with regard to cyanobacterial secondary metabolites.

Burian, A. Species-specific separation of lake plankton reveals divergent food assimilation patterns in rotifers. Groendahl, S. High dietary quality of non-toxic cyanobacteria for a benthic grazer and its implications for the control of cyanobacterial biofilms. BMC Ecol. Chislock, M. Do high concentrations of microcystin prevent Daphnia control of phytoplankton? Water Res. Vollenweider, R. Schindler, D. Eutrophication and recovery in experimental lakes: implications for lake management.

Jeppesen, E. Lake responses to reduced nutrient loading: an analysis of contemporary long-term data from 35 case studies. Fastner, J. Combating cyanobacterial proliferation by avoiding or treating inflows with high P load: experiences from eight case studies.

This study presents a very nice overview of eight lakes in which cyanobacterial blooms were successfully controlled through the reduction of phosphorus loads. Grizzetti, B. Nutrient over-enrichment and hydrologic alterations have dramatically affected global water ecosystems. Accelerated by climate change and its consequences, cyanobacterial blooms have become a global concern.

Cyanobacteria are microorganisms that structurally resemble bacteria, but lack a nucleus and organelles. Unlike other bacteria, cyanobacteria can conduct oxygenic photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll a chl-a. Cyanobacteria have a remarkable capacity to somehow adapt to global changes. They can survive high ultraviolet light, desiccation, hypersalinity, and extreme temperatures even for many years. These organisms grow in freshwater lakes, streams, oceans, damp soil, moistened rocks, and more.

Over billions of years of evolution, they have formed unique symbiotic associations with microorganisms, plants, seagrass, fungi, sponges, and cycads. Single cyanobacteria are too small to see without a microscope, but they can grow into massive colonies, which can even be seen even from space. Cyanobacterial blooms can be extremely dangerous to human health, animals, and ecosystems. Cyanobacteria can critically impair the safety of drinking water, and fishing, irrigation, and recreational value.

CyanoHABs deplete the oxygen in the water, release toxins, and degrade the water quality. Cyanobacterial blooms can severely damage water ecosystems, causing fish and plants to suffocate and die. They compromise the water quality and safety for animals and people by releasing cyanotoxins into the water.

When the cyanobacteria in the bloom start to disintegrate, they produce unpleasant tastes and odors. CyanoHABs can bring economic losse s to many business sectors.

They cause significant financial damage to the agricultural sector, fisheries, water treatment plants, tourism industries, recreational services, and real estate prices in the waterfront areas. Some cyanobacteria can release toxins cyanotoxins , which are produced and contained within their cell. Cyanotoxins are released after the cell death or if the cells are lysed open by chemical treatment. These toxins can be dangerous to humans, animals, aquatic life, and the environment. If people consume cyanotoxins by drinking contaminated water, inhaling them while swimming, or eating contaminated fish, they can affect their liver hepatotoxins , their nervous system neurotoxins , and skin.

They can cause kidney damage, abdominal pain, shortness of breath, and can increase tumor growth dermatoxins. Reported cases of domestic and wild animal illnesses and death linked to cyanotoxins are growing each year. Both long-term exposure to low toxin levels, and short-term contact with high toxin levels deteriorate health.

For water managers, it is crucial to know if drinking water contains blue-green algae and associated toxins. Therefore, it is essential to comply with current drinking water guidelines for toxins to minimize public health risks. Cyanotoxin production depends on environmental factors. Nutrient supply rates nitrogen — N, phosphorus — P, and trace metals , light intensity, and high temperatures have a major impact. Interactions with other bacteria, viruses, and fish can also stimulate the release of cyanotoxins into water bodies.

Extensive nutrient supply N and P , rising atmospheric CO2 levels, and higher water temperatures intensify the cyanobacterial growth. Animals are often the first to be affected because they are more likely than humans to swim in or drink water contaminated by cHABs, even if it looks or smells bad. Domestic animals, especially dogs, may be early victims of a toxin-producing bloom. Dogs become engaged in outdoor activities and do not differentiate between clean or contaminated water.

Effects seem to be more serious in animals than in humans. This might be the result of higher ingested doses or a difference in the reaction to toxins. The most frequently reported symptoms in dogs exposed to cHABs are gastrointestinal, such as vomiting and foaming at the mouth. Exposure can also cause lethargy and neurologic symptoms, including stumbling, behavior changes, spastic twitching, loss of coordination, ataxia, violent tremors, partial paralysis, and respiratory paralysis.

Hepatoenteritis, toxic liver injury, hepatic lesions with necrosis, and petechial hemorrhages of the heart have been reported in animals.

Exposure has caused death in fish, dogs, cattle, and birds. People should use clean, fresh water to immediately wash cyanobacteria off pets and livestock that contact a bloom. They should also prevent the animal from licking cyanobacteria off its fur. People should keep their pets or livestock from grazing near, drinking, or swimming in water with a bloom. People should contact a veterinarian if the animal shows any signs or symptoms of illness after suspected or known exposure to cHABs or potentially contaminated water.

Signs and symptoms include loss of energy or appetite, vomiting, stumbling or falling, foaming at the mouth, diarrhea, convulsions, excessive drooling, tremors, or any other unexplained sickness. The same confirmatory tests used for humans can be used for animals see section 3 in human exposure to cHABs.

The primary responsibility for the control of harmful algal blooms rests with agencies, such as state and local health departments.